Objectives
The primary goal of the current project is to provide
a historic context for the DTC/C-AMA. The
context will aid in developing future management
and interpretive plans for the various resources
associated with the DTC/C-AMA. The context is an
essential first step in listing the complex in the
NRHP and will also provide a basis for evaluating
the sites that constitute the DTC/C-AMA. The remaining
resources are extremely fragile and present
an enormous management and interpretive challenge.
The sites are threatened by damage from
off highway vehicle and recreational use, as well as
casual artifact collection and visitor use. Natural
erosion is also taking its toll. Many remaining sites
present an opportunity to interpret this important
time in U.S. history. When properly protected and
interpreted, the DTC/C-AMA has great potential to
serve as an important heritage tourism focus for the
area. The current project will be a foundation for
follow-up projects that will deal more specifically
with the interpretation and preservation of individual
sites.

In California, remaining features
include training camps, airfields, bivouacs, and
maneuver areas, as well as more ephemeral features,
such as tank tracks. The complex represents a significant
event and period in U.S. history and is considered
eligible for listing in the NRHP. Although
NRHP listing was recommended by the BLM in the
Desert Training Center/California-Arizona Maneuver Area
Interpretive Plan (BLM 1986), the BLM currently
has no systematic inventory or evaluation of
this important resource.

NRHP Eligibility Evaluation
The National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of
1966, as amended, requires federal entities to identify
and evaluate cultural resources under their jurisdiction,
particularly in areas to be affected by federal
undertakings. The NHPA also established the NRHP,
which is maintained by the secretary of the interior.
The NRHP provides standards by which resources
are evaluated for eligibility for listing in the NRHP.
For a resource to be eligible for inclusion in the
NRHP, it must meet one or more criteria defined in
Title 36, Part 60, of the Code of Federal Regulations
(36 CFR 60). Four criteria have been established
within this code (36 CFR 60.4), as well as a general
stipulation that the property in question must be at
least 50 years old. Eligibility of a resource may be
based on any of the criteria, as noted below (National
Park Service [NPS] 1995:2).

The quality of significance in American history,
architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture
is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures,
and objects that possess integrity of location, design,
setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, association,
and:
A. that are associated with events that have
made a significant contribution to the broad patterns
of our history; or
B. that are associated with the lives of persons
significant in our past; or
C. that embody the distinctive characteristics
of a type, period, or method of construction, or
that represent the work of a master, or that possess
high artistic value, or that represent a significant
and distinguishable entity whose components
may lack individual distinction; or
D. that have yielded, or may be likely to yield,
information important in prehistory or history.

The National Register process requires that the
"significance" of a property be assessed according
to the above criteria. Significance focuses on the
strength of the associative values that qualify a resource
or historic property for listing in the NRHP.
To evaluate significance, one must first establish
"historic contexts," which are defined as bodies of
information about historic properties organized by
three basic elements—theme, place, and time. More
specifically, historic contexts are those patterns or
trends in history by which a specific occurrence,
property, or site is understood and its meaning (and
ultimately its significance) within history or prehistory
is made clear (NPS 1995:7). A comprehensive
historic context is grounded in the thorough historical
investigations undertaken for a project.

The NRHP criteria further stipulate that, to be
considered eligible for listing, a property must
possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials,
workmanship, feeling, and association. According
to the definitions established by the NRHP, "integrity
is the ability of a property to convey its significance."
The NRHP also stipulates that "to retain
historic integrity, a property will always possess
several, and usually most, of the aspects" (Townsend
et al. 1993:17).

Based on the research conducted for this project
and the nature of the resources documented, SRI
recommends that the DTC/C-AMA be nominated to
the NRHP using a multiple property submission
format (Hanks 1999; NPS 1991). This type of National
Register submission was created to streamline
the nomination and registration process for properties
that share a common theme. A multiple property
submission can include both individual properties
and districts as long as they share similar
physical characteristics and historical associations.
Within the submission, information that is common
to the group of resources—such as methods, bibliography,
and historic context(s)—is presented just
once, whereas information specific to each individual
building, archaeological site, structure, or district
is recorded on an individual NRHP registration
form. Some multiple property submissions are written
to establish the registration requirements for
properties that may be nominated in the future,
which makes the format exceptionally useful for
management purposes.

A multiple property submission includes four
components: a name for the multiple property listing,
an associated historic context or contexts, an
associated property type or types, and individual
NRHP registration forms for each property or district
to be registered. In the case of the proposed multiple
property submission for the DTC/C-AMA, the name
of the listing is "Desert Training Center/California-
Arizona Maneuver Area (DTC/C-AMA)." Relevant
historic contexts include World War II, 1939-1945,
and U.S. military training and home-front preparation
for World War II, 1942-1944. Within these broad
contexts, SRI explored the specifics of U.S. preparation
for World War II and U.S. military training as
played out in the area encompassed by the DTC/
C-AMA as well as the impact of significant American
military figures such as Generals Patton and Walker.
These themes mesh well with the new NPS thematic
framework for history and prehistory (Little 1997),
which includes topics such as the changing role of
the United States in the world, shaping the political
landscape, expanding science and technology, and
transforming the environment.

Each multiple property submission must have at
least one associated property type (additional property
types can be submitted later, as necessary). In
the case of the DTC/C-AMA, property types include
divisional camps, airfields and airports, landing
strips, bivouacs, maneuver areas, ranges, training
areas, campsites, hospitals, quartermaster depots,
railroad sidings, tank tracks and refuse deposits.
Finally, each multiple property listing must have
individual NRHP registration forms for each property
or district to be registered. For this project, an
NRHP district nomination has been prepared for the
Iron Mountain Divisional Camp. It is clear that there
are many classes of DTC/C-AMA-related features
currently extant that have not been evaluated for
NRHP eligibility. The present nomination "package"
is designed to allow for the inclusion or exclusion of
resources as they are encountered.

Another important aspect of the nomination process
is the evaluation of integrity, including how resources
reflect (or do not reflect) their historical
associations. To make initial assessments of integrity,
sites were visited to obtain information on current
condition, including whether or not extensive
disturbance had occurred or whether threats to the
site existed.

NPS standards also require the documentation of
each individually eligible resource. Standard documentation
includes a U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
topographic map, a sketch map or aerial photograph,
and a description of resources present at the site
nominated, all of which are provided with the nomination
documentation.

To be considered eligible for listing in the NRHP,
camps must convey their historical associations.
More specifically, the basic outlines of the camp
should be discernible. This means that rock-lined
roads and walkways should still be in existence,
along with outlines for tents or other specific activity
areas. Some idea of the size of these camps must
also be discernible in order for them to truly convey
their significance and be eligible for listing in the
NRHP.

NRHP Eligibility:

Camp Coxcomb
Camp Essex
Camp Granite
Camp Ibis
Camp Iron Mountain
Camp Rice

NRHP Eligibility
Because airports and airfields played a critical role
in the training and operation of the DTC/C-AMA,
they are historically significant resources. Issues of
integrity are of the utmost concern when evaluating
the airfields. Many of these facilities have been
turned over to private use, altered for other uses, or
have been dismantled altogether. In order to be considered
eligible for listing in the NRHP, an airfield
must have been an integral part of the DTC/C-AMA
operation. In addition, it must convey its historical
significance. In order to be considered eligible for
listing in the NRHP, airfields and air facilities must
contain clearly discernible runways and aircraft
utility areas. Essex Airfield, for example, contains
several runways, as well as aircraft tie-down areas
complete with cement inscriptions. Landing strips
that no longer are visible because of vegetation
growth are generally to be considered not eligible.
What follows is a short description of known air
facilities, with a preliminary assessment of NRHP
eligibility.

Essex Airfield
Rice Army Airfield

Landing Strips
Several sand and gravel landing strips existed throughout
the DTC/C-AMA. Many of these runways existed
prior to the activation of the DTC/C-AMA, although
several were constructed for army use. During maneuvers,
landing strips were established in a variety
of locations. The strips used in the DTC/C-AMA had
the following names:

Bagdad
Cadiz
Calipatria
Chocolate Mountains (east end)
Chuckwalla Mountains
Connor
Coxcomb Camp
Ford Well
Freda Station
Goffs
Granite Mountains
Harveys
Heron
Hopkins Well
Hyder
Ibis
Imperial County Airport
Iron Mountain
Little Chuckwalla Mountains
McCoy Springs
Milpitas Wash
Palo Verde
Piute Mountains
Plosser
Salome
Searchlight
Smiley

Little else is known about these landing strips.
Sites of these landing strips should be visited
to determine whether any DTC/C-AMA-related
features or artifacts remain. In order to be considered
eligible for listing in the NRHP, a landing strip
must be clearly discernible, reflecting its historical
association.

Freda
Cadiz